Jane Allen

The nominal group technique has been used in the health care sector in the development of guidelines and the identification of research priorities. The methodology suits research that includes both health professionals and consumers, since it allows for the free exchange of opinions and the generation of ideas within a structured and non-hierarchical discussion forum. This article describes the process of planning and running a nominal group and uses examples from a primary-care-based study to illustrate some of the advantages of using this method, and also the practical implications of using the technique in consensus development.

BACKGROUND: Medication related harm (MRH) is a common cause of morbidity and hospital admission in the elderly, and has significant cost implications for both primary and secondary healthcare resources. The development of risk prediction models has become an increasingly common phenomenon in medicine and can be useful to guide objective clinical decision making, resource allocation and intervention. There are no risk prediction models that are widely used in clinical practice to identify elderly patients at high risk of MRH following hospital discharge. The aim of this study is to develop a risk prediction model (RPM) to identify elderly patients at high risk of MRH upon discharge from hospital, and to compare this with routine clinical judgment. METHODS/DESIGN: This is a multi-centre, prospective observational study following a cohort of patients for 8 weeks after hospital discharge. Data collection including patient characteristics, medication use, social factors and frailty will take place prior to patient discharge and then the patient will be followed up in the community over the next 8 weeks to determine if they have experienced MRH. Research pharmacists will determine whether patients have experienced MRH by prospectively reviewing records for unplanned emergency department attendance, hospital readmission and GP consultation related to MRH. Research pharmacists will also telephone patients directly to determine self-reported MRH, which patients may not have sought further medical attention for. The data collected will inform the development of a RPM which will be externally validated in a follow-up study. DISCUSSION: There are no RPMs that are used in clinical practice to help stratify elderly patients at high risk of MRH in the community following hospital discharge, despite this being a significant public health problem. This study plans to develop a clinically useful RPM that is better than routine clinical judgment. As this is a multi-centre study involving clinical settings that serve elderly people of heterogeneous sociodemographic background, it is anticipated that this RPM will be generalizable.

The United Kingdom has one of the highest teenage pregnancy rates in Western Europe with a high proportion of unintended pregnancies resulting in termination. General practice is one source of contraceptive and sexual advice for teenagers but it is difficult to target young women most at risk. This study was performed to determine whether it was possible to identify any markers that could alert general practitioners to the need to give appropriate opportunistic preventive advice. This was a retrospective case-control study in which the general practice medical records of young women with a recorded history of termination of pregnancy resulting from conception between the ages of 13-19 years inclusive were examined for details of consultations and contraceptive provision prior to conception. Where appropriate, comparison was made with an age and practice-matched control group. A total of 53 cases were identified and compared with 159 controls. In the 12 months prior to conception approximately half of the cases had discussed contraception and two-fifths had been prescribed oral contraception. A significantly higher proportion of cases than controls had consulted for emergency contraception and also for urinary tract symptoms. Weaker associations were also found with younger age of starting contraception, and also recorded side-effects or dissatisfaction with contraception. Lapsed contraception and previous pregnancy were noted as other potential markers of risk. The findings from this study may assist primary care professionals in focussing opportunistic sexual health interventions at some teenagers who are at higher risk of unintended pregnancy.

Consultation rates in young children are high, and parents and carers of young children have reported feeling disempowered and anxious when their children display common symptoms. Parents have stated that more information would help them manage these symptoms appropriately. This focus group study explored how parents and carers of young children feel when their child displays common symptoms, what information they need to assist them in appropriate management, and to determine if they would value an educational intervention on the management of common symptoms. Findings showed that many parents sought help from families and friends following negative experiences of seeking advice from health professionals and many were wary of the information presented in health information leaflets produced by pharmaceutical companies. Parents and carers who took part in this study stated that they would value an educational intervention that would help them to appropriately manage common symptoms. They wanted to receive the information through interactive group sessions, led by a health visitor, with the inclusion of simple and non-product biased "take home" materials.

AIM: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is common amongst frail older people. The evidence base for CVD commonly excludes older adults with multimorbidity or chronic conditions. Most cardiovascular drugs have the potential to lower blood pressure (BP) and therefore cause medication-related harm (MRH). We aimed to identify key clinical and sociodemographic characteristics associated with MRH in older people taking BP-lowering drugs for whatever indication they were prescribed. METHODS: The PRIME (prospective study to develop a model to stratify the risk of MRH in hospitalised elderly patients in the UK) study investigating the incidence and cost of MRH in older people across Southern England. Adults ≥65 years were recruited from five teaching hospitals at hospital discharge and followed up for 8 weeks. Telephone interviews with study participants, review of primary care records and hospital readmissions were undertaken to identify MRH. PRIME study participants taking BP-lowering drugs (as defined by National Institute for Health and Care Excellence hypertension guidelines) were included in this analysis. RESULTS: One hundred and four (12%) study patients experienced a total of 153 MRH events associated with BP-lowering drugs. Patients on four BP-lowering drugs were five times more likely to experience MRH compared to those taking one medication (OR 4.96; 95%CI 1.63-15.13; P = 0.01). Most MRH events were classified 'serious' (80%, n = 123), requiring dose change or treatment cessation. Almost half of MRH were potentially preventable (49%, n = 75). CONCLUSION: Polypharmacy from BP-lowering drugs in older people is associated with preventable harm. Decisions around cardiovascular risk reduction should be carefully considered in view of MRH arising from BP-lowering drugs.