Meihui Pan

How omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) lower plasma lipid levels is incompletely understood. We previously showed that marine omega-3 PUFAs (docosahexaenoic acid [DHA] and eicosapentaenoic acid) stimulate a novel pathway, post-ER presecretory proteolysis (PERPP), that degrades apolipoprotein B100 (ApoB100), thereby reducing lipoprotein secretion from liver cells. To identify signals stimulating PERPP, we examined known actions of omega-3 PUFA. In rat hepatoma or primary rodent hepatocytes incubated with omega-3 PUFA, cotreatment with the iron chelator desferrioxamine, an inhibitor of iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, or vitamin E, a lipid antioxidant, suppressed increases in thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARSs; a measure of lipid peroxidation products) and restored ApoB100 recovery and VLDL secretion. Moreover, omega-6 and nonmarine omega-3 PUFA, also prone to peroxidation, increased ApoB100 degradation via intracellular induction of TBARSs. Even without added fatty acids, degradation of ApoB100 in primary hepatocytes was blocked by desferrioxamine or antioxidant cotreatment. To extend these results in vivo, mice were infused with DHA, which increased hepatic TBARSs and reduced VLDL-ApoB100 secretion. These results establish a novel link between lipid peroxidation and oxidant stress with ApoB100 degradation via PERPP, and may be relevant to the hypolipidemic actions of dietary PUFAs, the basal regulation of ApoB100 secretion, and hyperlipidemias arising from ApoB100 overproduction.

We previously showed that Omega-3 fatty acids reduce secretion of apolipoprotein B (apoB) from cultured hepatocytes by stimulating post-translational degradation. In this report, we now characterize this process, particularly in regard to the two known processes that degrade newly synthesized apoB, endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation and re-uptake from the cell surface. First, we found that Omega-3-induced degradation preferentially reduces the secretion of large, assembled apoB-lipoprotein particles, and apoB polypeptide length is not a determinant. Second, based on several experimental approaches, ER-associated degradation is not involved. Third, re-uptake, the only process known to destroy fully assembled nascent lipoproteins, was clearly active in primary hepatocytes, but Omega-3-induced degradation of apoB continued even when re-uptake was blocked. Cell fractionation showed that Omega-3 fatty acids induced a striking loss of apoB100 from the Golgi, while sparing apoB100 in the ER, indicating a post-ER process. To determine the signaling involved, we used wortmannin, a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor, which blocked most, if not all, of the Omega-3 fatty acid effect. Therefore, nascent apoB is subject to ER-associated degradation, re-uptake, and a third distinct degradative pathway that appears to target lipoproteins after considerable assembly and involves a post-ER compartment and PI3K signaling. Physiologic, pathophysiologic, and pharmacologic regulation of net apoB secretion may involve alterations in any of these three degradative steps.

Hepatic secretion of apolipoprotein-B (apoB), the major protein of atherogenic lipoproteins, is regulated through posttranslational degradation. We reported a degradation pathway, post-ER pre secretory proteolysis (PERPP), that is increased by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated within hepatocytes from dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). We now report the molecular processes by which PUFA-derived ROS regulate PERPP of apoB. ApoB exits the ER; undergoes limited oxidant-dependent aggregation; and then, upon exit from the Golgi, becomes extensively oxidized and converted into large aggregates. The aggregates slowly degrade by an autophagic process. None of the oxidized, aggregated material leaves cells, thereby preventing export of apoB-lipoproteins containing potentially toxic lipid peroxides. In summary, apoB secretory control via PERPP/autophagosomes is likely a key component of normal and pathologic regulation of plasma apoB levels, as well as a means for remarkably late-stage quality control of a secreted protein.

Genetic deficiency of the plasma phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) in mice unexpectedly causes a substantial impairment in liver secretion of apolipoprotein-B (apoB), the major protein of atherogenic lipoproteins. To explore the mechanism, we examined the three known pathways for hepatic apoB secretory control, namely endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/proteasome-associated degradation (ERAD), post-ER pre-secretory proteolysis (PERPP), and receptor-mediated degradation, also known as re-uptake. First, we found that ERAD and cell surface re-uptake were not active in PLTP-null hepatocytes. Moreover, ER-to-Golgi blockade by brefeldin A, which enhances ERAD, equalized total apoB recovery from PLTP-null and wild-type cells, indicating that the relevant process occurs post-ER. Second, because PERPP can be stimulated by intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), we examined hepatic redox status. Although we found previously that PLTP-null mice exhibit elevated plasma concentrations of vitamin E, a lipid anti-oxidant, we now discovered that their livers contain significantly less vitamin E and significantly more lipid peroxides than do livers of wild-type mice. Third, to establish a causal connection, the addition of vitamin E or treatment with an inhibitor of intracellular iron-dependent peroxidation, desferrioxamine, abolished the elevation in cellular ROS as well as the defect in apoB secretion from PLTP-null hepatocytes. Overall, we conclude that PLTP deficiency decreases liver vitamin E content, increases hepatic oxidant tone, and substantially enhances ROS-dependent destruction of newly synthesized apoB via a post-ER process. These findings are likely to be broadly relevant to hepatic apoB secretory control in vivo.

Although microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) and newly synthesized triglyceride (TG) are critical for co-translational targeting of apolipoprotein B (apoB100) to lipoprotein assembly in hepatoma cell lines, their roles in the later stages of lipoprotein assembly remain unclear. Using N-acetyl-Leu-Leu-norleucinal to prevent proteasomal degradation, HepG2 cells were radiolabeled and chased for 0-90 min (chase I). The medium was changed and cells chased for another 150 min (chase II) in the absence (control) or presence of Pfizer MTP inhibitor CP-10447 (CP). As chase I was extended, inhibition of apoB100 secretion by CP during chase II decreased from 75.9% to only 15% of control (no CP during chase II). Additional studies were conducted in which chase I was either 0 or 90 min, and chase II was in the presence of [(3)H]glycerol and either BSA (control), CP (inhibits both MTP activity and TG synthesis),BMS-1976360-1) (BMS) (inhibits only MTP activity), or triacsin C (TC) (inhibits only TG synthesis). When chase I was 0 min, CP, BMS, and TC reduced apoB100 secretion during chase II by 75.3, 73.9, and 53.9%. However, when chase I was 90 min, those agents reduced apoB100 secretion during chase II by only 16.0, 19.2, and 13.9%. Of note, all three inhibited secretion of newly synthesized TG during chase II by 80, 80, and 40%, whether chase I was 0 or 90 min. In both HepG2 cells and McA-RH7777 cells, if chase I was at least 60 min, inhibition of TG synthesis and/or MTP activity did not affect the density of secreted apoB100-lipoproteins under basal conditions. Oleic acid increased secretion of TG-enriched apoB100-lipoproteins similarly in the absence or presence of either of CP, BMS, or TC. We conclude that neither MTP nor newly synthesized TG is necessary for the later stages of apoB100-lipoprotein assembly and secretion in either HepG2 or McA-RH7777 cells.