Modern Aspects of Cutaneous Neurogenic InflammationRecent findings have shed new light on the role of peripheral nerves in the skin and established a modern concept of cutaneous neurobiology. Closely related monodirectional and/or bidirectional pathways exist in which the central and peripheral nervous system, the endocrine and immune system, and almost all skin cells are involved. Information is emerging about the factors involved in these immunomodulatory mechanisms, which are defined as neuropeptides, neurotransmitters, neurotrophins, and neurohormones. The interaction between peripheral nerves and the immune system is mediated by different types of cutaneous nerve fibers that release neuromediators and activate specific receptors on target cells in the skin such as keratinocytes, mast cells, Langerhans cells, microvascular endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and infiltrating immune cells. These interactions influence a variety of physiologic and pathophysiologic functions including cellular development, growth, differentiation, immunity, vasoregulation, leukocyte recruitment, pruritus, and wound healing. A variety of mechanisms lead to the termination of cellular responses to released neuropeptides under physiologic circumstances. Herein, we highlight some of the recent advances of neurocutaneous biology and discuss the role of nerves in mediating cutaneous inflammation. Understanding the mechanisms and the factors controlling neuromediators and their receptors and degrading enzymes will lead to the identification of novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of cutaneous diseases.
Loss of S100A9 (MRP14) Results in Reduced Interleukin-8-Induced CD11b Surface Expression, a Polarized Microfilament System, and Diminished Responsiveness to Chemoattractants In VitroThe S100A9 (MRP14) protein is abundantly expressed in myeloid cells and has been associated with various inflammatory diseases. The S100A9-deficient mice described here were viable, fertile, and generally of healthy appearance. The myelopoietic potential of the S100A9-null bone marrow was normal. S100A8, the heterodimerization partner of S100A9 was not detectable in peripheral blood cells, suggesting that even a deficiency in both S100A8 and S100A9 proteins was compatible with viable and mature neutrophils. Surprisingly, the invasion of S100A9-deficient leukocytes into the peritoneum and into the skin in vivo was indistinguishable from that in wild-type mice. However, stimulation of S100A9-deficient neutrophils with interleukin-8 in vitro failed to provoke an up-regulation of CD11b. Migration upon a chemotactic stimulus through an endothelial monolayer was markedly diminished in S100A9-deficient neutrophils. Attenuated chemokinesis of the S100A9-deficient neutrophils was observed by using a three-dimensional collagen matrix migration assay. The altered migratory behavior was associated with a microfilament system that was highly polarized in unstimulated S100A9-deficient neutrophils. Our data suggest that loss of the calcium-binding S100A9 protein reduces the responsiveness of the neutrophils upon chemoattractant stimuli at least in vitro. Alternative pathways for neutrophil emigration may be responsible for the lack of any effect in the two in vivo models we have investigated so far.