Amy K. M. Lam

When cells are challenged by hyperosmotic stress, one of the crucial adaptive responses is the expression of osmoprotective genes that are responsible for raising the intracellular level of compatible osmolytes such as sorbitol, betaine, and myo-inositol. This is achieved by the activation of the transcription factor called OREBP (also known as TonEBP or NFAT5) that specifically binds to the osmotic response element (ORE) or tonicity-responsive enhancer that enhances the transcription of these genes. Here we show that p38, a subgroup of the mitogen-activated kinases activated by hypertonic stress, and Fyn, a shrinkage-activated tyrosine kinase, are both involved in the hypertonic activation of OREBP/TonEBP. Inhibition of p38 by SB203580 or by the dominant negative p38 mutant partially blocked the hypertonic induction of ORE reporter (reporter gene regulated by ORE). Similarly, hypertonic activation of ORE reporter was partially blocked by pharmacological inhibition of Fyn or by a dominant negative Fyn and was attenuated in Fyn-deficient cells. Importantly, inhibiting p38 in Fyn-deficient cells almost completely abolished the hypertonic induction of ORE reporter activity, indicating that p38 and Fyn are the major signaling pathways for the hypertonic activation of OREBP/TonEBP. Further we show that the transactivation domain of OREBP/TonEBP is the target of p38- and Fyn-mediated hypertonic activation. These results indicate a dual control in regulating the expression of the osmoprotective genes in mammalian cells.

Aquaporin 2 (AQP2) is responsible for regulating the concentration of urine in the collecting tubules of the kidney under the control of vasopressin (Vp). Studies using Vp-deficient Brattleboro rats, however, indicated the existence of substantial Vp-independent mechanisms for membrane insertion, as well as transcriptional regulation, of this water channel. The Vp-independent mechanism(s) is clinically relevant to patients with X-linked nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI) by therapeutically bypassing the dysfunctional Vp receptor. On the basis of studies with secretin receptor-null (SCTR(-/-)) mice, we report here for the first time that mutation of the SCTR gene could lead to mild polydipsia and polyuria. Additionally, SCTR(-/-) mice were shown to have reduced renal expression of AQP2 and AQP4, as well as altered glomerular and tubular morphology, suggesting possible disturbances in the filtration and/or water reabsorption process in these animals. By using SCTR(-/-) mice as controls and comparing them with wild-type animals, we performed both in vivo and in vitro studies that demonstrated a role for secretin in stimulating (i) AQP2 translocation from intracellular vesicles to the plasma membrane in renal medullary tubules and (ii) expression of this water channel under hyperosmotic conditions. The present study therefore provides information for at least one of the Vp-independent mechanisms that modulate the process of renal water reabsorption. Future investigations in this direction should be important in developing therapeutic means for treating NDI patients.

Previously, exchange protein directly activated by cAMP 2 (Epac2) and PKA were known to play a role in glucose‐stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) by pancreatic β cells. The present study shows that Epac1 mRNA is also expressed by β cells. Therefore, we generated mice and embryonic stem (ES) cells with deletion of the Epac1 gene to define its role in β‐cell biology and metabolism. The homozygous Epac1‐ knockout (Epac1 –/– ) mice developed impaired glucose tolerance and GSIS with deranged islet cytoarchitecture, which was confirmed by isolated islets from adult Epac1 –/– mice. Moreover, Epac1 –/– mice developed more severe hyperglycemia with increased β‐cell apoptosis and insulitis after multiple low‐dose streptozotocin (MLDS; 40 mg/kg) treatment than Epac1 +/+ mice. Interestingly, Epac1 –/– mice also showed metabolic defects, including increased respiratory exchange ratio (RER) and plasma triglyceride (TG), and more severe diet‐induced obesity with insulin resistance, which may contributed to β‐cell dysfunction. However, islets differentiated from Epac1 –/– ES cells showed insulin secretion defect, reduced Glut2 and PDX‐1 expression, and abolished GLP‐1‐stimulated PCNA induction, suggesting a role of Epac1 in β‐cell function. The current study provides in vitro and in vivo evidence that Epac1 has an important role in GSIS of β cells and phenotype resembling metabolic syndrome. Kai, A. K. L., Lam, A. K. M., Chen, Y., Tai, A. C. P., Zhang, X., Lai, A. K. W., Yeung, P. K. K., Tam, S., Wang, J., Lam, K. S., Vanhoutte, P. M., Bos, J. L., Chung, S. S. M., Xu, A., Chung, S. K. Exchange protein activated by cAMP 1 ( Epac1 )‐deficient mice develop β‐cell dysfunction and metabolic syndrome. FASEBJ. 27, 4122–4135 (2013). www.fasebj.org

Nuclear factor of activated T cells 5 (NFAT5) has been implicated in regulating several genes that are thought to be neuroprotective in ischemic injury. Because of the embryonic lethality of NFAT5 knockout (NFAT5(-/-)) mice, the heterozygous (NFAT5(+/-)) mice were used to study the in vivo role of NFAT5 in hypoxia/ischemia (H/I) condition. The NFAT5(+/-) mice exhibited more severe neurological deficits, larger infarct area and edema formation associated with increased aquaporin 4 expressions in the brain. Under in vitro H/I condition, increased apoptotic cell death was found in NFAT5(-/-) neurons. Moreover, SMIT, a downstream to NFAT5, was upregulated in NFAT5(+/+) neurons, while the SMIT level could not be upregulated in NFAT5(-/-) neurons under H/I condition. The elevation of reactive oxygen species generation in NFAT5(-/-) neurons under H/I condition further confirmed that NFAT5(-/-) neurons were more susceptible to oxidative stress. The present study demonstrated that activation of NFAT5 and its downstream SMIT induction is important in protecting neurons from ischemia-induced oxidative stress.