Thurl E. Harris

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) functions in two distinct signaling complexes, mTORC1 and mTORC2. In response to insulin and nutrients, mTORC1, consisting of mTOR, raptor (regulatory-associated protein of mTOR), and mLST8, is activated and phosphorylates eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein (4EBP) and p70 S6 kinase to promote protein synthesis and cell size. Previously we found that activation of mTOR kinase in response to insulin was associated with increased 4EBP1 binding to raptor. Here we identify prolinerich Akt substrate 40 (PRAS40) as a binding partner for mTORC1. A putative TOR signaling motif, FVMDE, is identified in PRAS40 and shown to be required for interaction with raptor. Insulin stimulation markedly decreases the level of PRAS40 bound by mTORC1. Recombinant PRAS40 inhibits mTORC1 kinase activity in vivo and in vitro, and this inhibition depends on PRAS40 association with raptor. Furthermore, decreasing PRAS40 expression by short hairpin RNA enhances 4E-BP1 binding to raptor, and recombinant PRAS40 competes with 4E-BP1 binding to raptor. We, therefore, propose that PRAS40 regulates mTORC1 kinase activity by functioning as a direct inhibitor of substrate binding.

OBJECTIVE: Rictor is an essential component of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex (mTORC) 2, a kinase that phosphorylates and activates Akt, an insulin signaling intermediary that regulates glucose and lipid metabolism in adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, and liver. To determine the physiological role of rictor/mTORC2 in insulin signaling and action in fat cells, we developed fat cell-specific rictor knockout (FRic(-/-)) mice. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Insulin signaling and glucose and lipid metabolism were studied in FRic(-/-) fat cells. In vivo glucose metabolism was evaluated by hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp. RESULTS: Loss of rictor in fat cells prevents insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt at S473, which, in turn, impairs the phosphorylation of downstream targets such as FoxO3a at T32 and AS160 at T642. However, glycogen synthase kinase-3beta phosphorylation at S9 is not affected. The signaling defects in FRic(-/-) fat cells lead to impaired insulin-stimulated GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane and decreased glucose transport. Furthermore, rictor-null fat cells are unable to suppress lipolysis in response to insulin, leading to elevated circulating free fatty acids and glycerol. These metabolic perturbations are likely to account for defects observed at the whole-body level of FRic(-/-) mice, including glucose intolerance, marked hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance in skeletal muscle and liver, and hepatic steatosis. CONCLUSIONS: Rictor/mTORC2 in fat cells plays an important role in whole-body energy homeostasis by mediating signaling necessary for the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism in fat cells.

CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha (C/EBP alpha) is expressed at high levels in quiescent hepatocytes and in differentiated adipocytes. In cultured cells, C/EBP alpha inhibits cell proliferation in part via stabilization of the p21 protein. The role of C/EBP alpha in regulating hepatocyte proliferation in vivo is presented herein. In C/EBP alpha knockout newborn mice, p21 protein levels are reduced in the liver, and the fraction of hepatocytes synthesizing DNA is increased. Greater than 30% of the hepatocytes in C/EBP alpha knockout animals continue to proliferate at day 17 of postnatal life when cell division in wild-type littermates is low (3%). p21 protein levels are relatively high in wild-type neonates but undetectable in C/EBP alpha knockout mice. The reduction of p21 protein in the highly proliferating livers that lack C/EBP alpha suggests that p21 is responsible for C/EBP alpha-mediated control of liver proliferation in newborn mice. During rat liver regeneration, the amounts of both C/EBP alpha and p21 proteins are decreased before DNA synthesis (6 to 12 h) and then return to presurgery levels at 48 h. Although C/EBP alpha controls p21 protein levels, p21 mRNA is not influenced by C/EBP alpha in liver. Using coimmunoprecipitation and a mammalian two-hybrid assay system, we have shown the interaction of C/EBP alpha and p21 proteins. Study of p21 stability in liver nuclear extracts showed that C/EBP alpha blocks proteolytic degradation of p21. Our data demonstrate that C/EBP alpha regulates hepatocyte proliferation in newborn mice and that in liver, the level of p21 protein is under posttranscriptional control, consistent with the hypothesis that protein-protein interaction with C/EBP alpha determines p21 levels.