Keith Chater

Streptomycetes are high G+C Gram-positive, antibiotic-producing, mycelial soil bacteria. The 8.7-Mb Streptomyces coelicolor genome was previously sequenced by using an ordered library of Supercos-1 clones. Here, we describe an efficient procedure for creating precise gene replacements in the cosmid clones by using PCR targeting and λ-Red-mediated recombination. The cloned Streptomyces genes are replaced with a cassette containing a selectable antibiotic resistance and oriT RK2 for efficient transfer to Streptomyces by RP4-mediated intergeneric conjugation. Supercos-1 does not replicate in Streptomyces , but the clones readily undergo double-crossover recombination, thus creating gene replacements. The antibiotic resistance cassettes are flanked by yeast FLP recombinase target sequences for removal of the antibiotic resistance and oriT RK2 to generate unmarked, nonpolar mutations. The technique has been used successfully by >20 researchers to mutate around 100 Streptomyces genes. As an example, we describe its application to the discovery of a gene involved in the production of geosmin, the ubiquitous odor of soil. The gene, Sco6073 ( cyc2 ), codes for a protein with two sesquiterpene synthase domains, only one of which is required for geosmin biosynthesis, probably via a germacra-1 (10) E,5E -dien-11-ol intermediate generated by the sesquiterpene synthase from farnesyl pyrophosphate.

Actinobacteria constitute one of the largest phyla among bacteria and represent gram-positive bacteria with a high G+C content in their DNA. This bacterial group includes microorganisms exhibiting a wide spectrum of morphologies, from coccoid to fragmenting hyphal forms, as well as possessing highly variable physiological and metabolic properties. Furthermore, Actinobacteria members have adopted different lifestyles, and can be pathogens (e.g., Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, Nocardia, Tropheryma, and Propionibacterium), soil inhabitants (Streptomyces), plant commensals (Leifsonia), or gastrointestinal commensals (Bifidobacterium). The divergence of Actinobacteria from other bacteria is ancient, making it impossible to identify the phylogenetically closest bacterial group to Actinobacteria. Genome sequence analysis has revolutionized every aspect of bacterial biology by enhancing the understanding of the genetics, physiology, and evolutionary development of bacteria. Various actinobacterial genomes have been sequenced, revealing a wide genomic heterogeneity probably as a reflection of their biodiversity. This review provides an account of the recent explosion of actinobacterial genomics data and an attempt to place this in a biological and evolutionary context.

Streptomycetes are the most abundant source of antibiotics. Typically, each species produces several antibiotics, with the profile being species specific. Streptomyces coelicolor, the model species, produces at least five different antibiotics. We review the regulation of antibiotic biosynthesis in S. coelicolor and other, nonmodel streptomycetes in the light of recent studies. The biosynthesis of each antibiotic is specified by a large gene cluster, usually including regulatory genes (cluster-situated regulators [CSRs]). These are the main point of connection with a plethora of generally conserved regulatory systems that monitor the organism's physiology, developmental state, population density, and environment to determine the onset and level of production of each antibiotic. Some CSRs may also be sensitive to the levels of different kinds of ligands, including products of the pathway itself, products of other antibiotic pathways in the same organism, and specialized regulatory small molecules such as gamma-butyrolactones. These interactions can result in self-reinforcing feed-forward circuitry and complex cross talk between pathways. The physiological signals and regulatory mechanisms may be of practical importance for the activation of the many cryptic secondary metabolic gene cluster pathways revealed by recent sequencing of numerous Streptomyces genomes.

Streptomycetes, soil-dwelling mycelial bacteria that form sporulating aerial branches, have an exceptionally large number of predicted secreted proteins, including many exported via the twin-arginine transport system. Their use of noncatalytic substrate-binding proteins and hydrolytic enzymes to obtain soluble nutrients from carbohydrates such as chitin and cellulose enables them to interact with other organisms. Some of their numerous secreted proteases participate in developmentally significant extracellular cascades, regulated by inhibitors, which lead to cannibalization of the substrate mycelium biomass to support aerial growth and sporulation. They excrete many secondary metabolites, including important antibiotics. Some of these play roles in interactions with eukaryotes. Surprisingly, some antibiotic biosynthetic enzymes are extracellular. Antibiotic production is often regulated by extracellular signalling molecules, some of which also control morphological differentiation. Amphipathic proteins, assembled with the help of cellulose-like material, are required for both hyphal attachment to surfaces and aerial reproductive growth. Comparative genomic analysis suggests that the acquisition of genes for extracellular processes has played a huge part in speciation. The rare codon TTA, which is present in the key pleiotropic regulatory gene adpA and many pathway-specific regulatory genes for antibiotic production, has a particular influence on extracellular biology.