Marı́a Mittelbrunn

In the past decade, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been recognized as potent vehicles of intercellular communication, both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. This is due to their capacity to transfer proteins, lipids and nucleic acids, thereby influencing various physiological and pathological functions of both recipient and parent cells. While intensive investigation has targeted the role of EVs in different pathological processes, for example, in cancer and autoimmune diseases, the EV‐mediated maintenance of homeostasis and the regulation of physiological functions have remained less explored. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of the physiological roles of EVs, which has been written by crowd‐sourcing, drawing on the unique EV expertise of academia‐based scientists, clinicians and industry based in 27 European countries, the United States and Australia. This review is intended to be of relevance to both researchers already working on EV biology and to newcomers who will encounter this universal cell biological system. Therefore, here we address the molecular contents and functions of EVs in various tissues and body fluids from cell systems to organs. We also review the physiological mechanisms of EVs in bacteria, lower eukaryotes and plants to highlight the functional uniformity of this emerging communication system.

Exosomes are released by most cells to the extracellular environment and are involved in cell-to-cell communication. Exosomes contain specific repertoires of mRNAs, microRNAs (miRNAs) and other non-coding RNAs that can be functionally transferred to recipient cells. However, the mechanisms that control the specific loading of RNA species into exosomes remain unknown. Here we describe sequence motifs present in miRNAs that control their localization into exosomes. The protein heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A2B1 (hnRNPA2B1) specifically binds exosomal miRNAs through the recognition of these motifs and controls their loading into exosomes. Moreover, hnRNPA2B1 in exosomes is sumoylated, and sumoylation controls the binding of hnRNPA2B1 to miRNAs. The loading of miRNAs into exosomes can be modulated by mutagenesis of the identified motifs or changes in hnRNPA2B1 expression levels. These findings identify hnRNPA2B1 as a key player in miRNA sorting into exosomes and provide potential tools for the packaging of selected regulatory RNAs into exosomes and their use in biomedical applications. Cells secrete micro-RNAs by packaging them into exosomes; however, the mechanisms by which this packaging occurs are unclear. Here, the authors identify a sequence motif that confers exosomal targeting to micro-RNAs and identify a ribonucleoprotein complex that plays a role in this process.

The immune synapse is an exquisitely evolved means of communication between T cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) during antigen recognition. Recent evidence points to the transfer of RNA via exosomes as a novel mode of intercellular communication. Here we show that exosomes of T, B and dendritic immune cells contain microRNA (miRNA) repertoires that differ from those of their parent cells. We investigate whether miRNAs are exchanged during cognate immune interactions, and demonstrate the existence of antigen-driven unidirectional transfer of miRNAs from the T cell to the APC, mediated by the delivery of CD63+ exosomes on immune synapse formation. Inhibition of exosome production by targeting neutral sphingomyelinase-2 impairs transfer of miRNAs to APCs. Moreover, miRNAs transferred during immune synapsis are able to modulate gene expression in recipient cells. Thus, our results support a mechanism of cellular communication involving antigen-dependent, unidirectional intercellular transfer of miRNAs by exosomes during immune synapsis. Exosomes released from cells can transfer RNA to recipient cells. In this study, the authors demonstrate that microRNAs in exosomes from T cells can be transferred to antigen-presenting cells during immune synapsis, and that this can alter gene expression, suggesting a new form of cellular communication.

ABSTRACT The release of RNA‐containing extracellular vesicles (EV) into the extracellular milieu has been demonstrated in a multitude of different in vitro cell systems and in a variety of body fluids. RNA‐containing EV are in the limelight for their capacity to communicate genetically encoded messages to other cells, their suitability as candidate biomarkers for diseases, and their use as therapeutic agents. Although EV‐RNA has attracted enormous interest from basic researchers, clinicians, and industry, we currently have limited knowledge on which mechanisms drive and regulate RNA incorporation into EV and on how RNA‐encoded messages affect signalling processes in EV‐targeted cells. Moreover, EV‐RNA research faces various technical challenges, such as standardisation of EV isolation methods, optimisation of methodologies to isolate and characterise minute quantities of RNA found in EV, and development of approaches to demonstrate functional transfer of EV‐RNA in vivo . These topics were discussed at the 2015 EV‐RNA workshop of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles. This position paper was written by the participants of the workshop not only to give an overview of the current state of knowledge in the field, but also to clarify that our incomplete knowledge – of the nature of EV(‐RNA)s and of how to effectively and reliably study them – currently prohibits the implementation of gold standards in EV‐RNA research. In addition, this paper creates awareness of possibilities and limitations of currently used strategies to investigate EV‐RNA and calls for caution in interpretation of the obtained data.