Robert Michels

"The International Journal of Psychoanalysis." The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 88(6), pp. 1–2

The principle of self-government through political parties, cornerstone of democracy, has come to be regarded as a solution to problem of nationality. This is because principle of nationality entails acceptance of idea of popular government. The importance of principle of nationality is undeniable, and most of national questions of Western Europe might be solved in accordance with this principle. Matters are complicated by geographical and strategical considerations, such as difficulty of determining natural frontiers and frequent need to establish strategic frontiers. Moreover, principle of nationality cannot help us where nationalities barely exist or where they are entangled in inextricable confusion. The present work is a critical discussion of problem of democracy. Michels believes that democracy, as an intellectual theory and as a practical movement, has entered upon a critical phase from which exit will be extremely difficult. In this book he analyzes tendencies that oppose realization of democracy, and claims that these tendencies can be classified in three ways: dependence upon nature of individual; dependence upon nature of political structure; and dependence upon nature of organization. This edition, described by Morris Janowitz as a classic of modern social science and by Melvin Tumin as the beginning of a tradition, offers a landmark study in political science. Following its original publication in 1910, study and analysis of political parties was established as a new branch of science. Political Parties continues to be a foundation work in literature and is a necessary addition to libraries of contemporary political scientists, sociologists and historians.

OBJECTIVE: To encourage treatment of depression and prevention of suicide in physicians by calling for a shift in professional attitudes and institutional policies to support physicians seeking help. PARTICIPANTS: An American Foundation for Suicide Prevention planning group invited 15 experts on the subject to evaluate the state of knowledge about physician depression and suicide and barriers to treatment. The group assembled for a workshop held October 6-7, 2002, in Philadelphia, Pa. EVIDENCE: The planning group worked with each participant on a preworkshop literature review in an assigned area. Abstracts of presentations and key publications were distributed to participants before the workshop. After workshop presentations, participants were assigned to 1 of 2 breakout groups: (1) physicians in their role as patients and (2) medical institutions and professional organizations. The groups identified areas that required further research, barriers to treatment, and recommendations for reform. CONSENSUS PROCESS: This consensus statement emerged from a plenary session during which each work group presented its recommendations. The consensus statement was circulated to and approved by all participants. CONCLUSIONS: The culture of medicine accords low priority to physician mental health despite evidence of untreated mood disorders and an increased burden of suicide. Barriers to physicians' seeking help are often punitive, including discrimination in medical licensing, hospital privileges, and professional advancement. This consensus statement recommends transforming professional attitudes and changing institutional policies to encourage physicians to seek help. As barriers are removed and physicians confront depression and suicidality in their peers, they are more likely to recognize and treat these conditions in patients, including colleagues and medical students.