Light-induced cell damage in live-cell super-resolution microscopySuper-resolution microscopy can unravel previously hidden details of cellular structures but requires high irradiation intensities to use the limited photon budget efficiently. Such high photon densities are likely to induce cellular damage in live-cell experiments. We applied single-molecule localization microscopy conditions and tested the influence of irradiation intensity, illumination-mode, wavelength, light-dose, temperature and fluorescence labeling on the survival probability of different cell lines 20-24 hours after irradiation. In addition, we measured the microtubule growth speed after irradiation. The photo-sensitivity is dramatically increased at lower irradiation wavelength. We observed fixation, plasma membrane permeabilization and cytoskeleton destruction upon irradiation with shorter wavelengths. While cells stand light intensities of ~1 kW cm(-2) at 640 nm for several minutes, the maximum dose at 405 nm is only ~50 J cm(-2), emphasizing red fluorophores for live-cell localization microscopy. We also present strategies to minimize phototoxic factors and maximize the cells ability to cope with higher irradiation intensities.
Methylene Blue- and Thiol-Based Oxygen Depletion for Super-Resolution ImagingAnaerobic conditions are often required in solution-based bionanotechnological applications. Efficient oxygen depletion is essential for increasing photostability, optimizing fluorescence signals, and adjusting kinetics of fluorescence intermittency in single-molecule fluorescence spectroscopy/microscopy, particularly for super-resolution imaging techniques. We characterized methylene blue (MB)- and thiol-based redox reactions with the aim of designing an oxygen scavenger system as an alternative to the established enzyme-based oxygen scavenging systems or purging procedures. Redox reactions of the chromophore methylene blue in aqueous solution, commonly visualized in the blue bottle experiment, deplete molecular oxygen as long as a sacrificial reduction component is present in excess concentrations. We demonstrate that methylene blue in combination with reducing compounds such as β-mercaptoethylamine (MEA) can serve as fast and efficient oxygen scavenger. Efficient oxygen scavenging in aqueous solution is also possible with mere β-mercaptoethylamine at mM concentrations. We present kinetic parameters of the relevant reactions, pH-stability of the MB/MEA-oxygen scavenging system, and its application in single-molecule based super-resolution imaging.