Carbon nanodots as theranostics agents in cancer: advances in design, targeting, and real-time monitoring

Abstract

Carbon nanodots (CNDs) have emerged as a promising class of carbon-based nanomaterials for cancer theranostics, uniquely integrating diagnosis and therapy on a single platform. Their ultrasmall size, high aqueous dispersibility, tunable photoluminescence extending into the near-infrared (NIR) window, and compatibility with green, scalable synthesis enable deep-tissue imaging and targeted intervention with reduced systemic toxicity compared with many conventional nanomaterials. This review summarises recent advances in the top-down and bottom-up fabrication of CNDs, including heteroatom doping and surface functionalisation with ligands or stimuli-responsive linkers, and relates these design parameters to optical performance, tumour selectivity, and responsiveness to the tumour microenvironment. Particular emphasis is placed on CND-based platforms for multimodal imaging (fluorescence, MRI, and photoacoustic), controlled-release drug delivery, gene silencing, and light-activated photodynamic and photothermal therapies, as well as emerging synergistic systems that combine these functions for real-time, image-guided treatment. Remaining challenges, such as batch-to-batch variability, incomplete understanding of long-term biosafety (especially for metal-doped CNDs), and limited clinical-scale manufacturing and regulatory readiness, are critically discussed alongside future opportunities, including NIR-II optimisation, protein-corona-resistant surface engineering, and AI-assisted CND design for personalised cancer theranostics.