SMAdd-seq: probing chromatin accessibility with small molecule DNA intercalation and nanopore sequencing

Abstract

Studies of in vivo chromatin organization have relied on the accessibility of the underlying DNA to nucleases or methyltransferases, which is limited by their requirement for purified nuclei and enzymatic treatment. Here, we introduce a nanopore-based sequencing technique called small-molecule adduct sequencing (SMAdd-seq), where we profile chromatin accessibility by treating nuclei or intact cells with a small molecule, angelicin. Angelicin preferentially forms photoadducts with thymine bases in linker DNA, thereby labeling accessible DNA regions. By applying SMAdd-seq in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we demonstrate that angelicin-modified DNA can be detected by its distinct nanopore current signals. To systematically identify angelicin modifications and analyze chromatin structure, we developed a neural network model, NEural network for mapping MOdifications in nanopore long-reads (NEMO). NEMO accurately called expected nucleosome occupancy patterns near transcription start sites at both bulk and single-molecule levels. We observe heterogeneity in chromatin structure and identify clusters of single-molecule reads with varying configurations at specific yeast loci. Furthermore, SMAdd-seq performs equivalently on purified yeast nuclei and intact cells, indicating the promise of this method for in vivo chromatin labeling on long single molecules to measure native chromatin dynamics and heterogeneity.