Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide (GIP) Stimulation of Pancreatic β-Cell Survival Is Dependent upon Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase (PI3K)/Protein Kinase B (PKB) Signaling, Inactivation of the Forkhead Transcription Factor Foxo1, and Down-regulation of bax Expression

Abstract

The hormone glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) potently stimulates insulin secretion and promotes β-cell proliferation and cell survival. In the present study we identified Forkhead (Foxo1)-mediated suppression of the bax gene as a critical component of the effects of GIP on cell survival. Treatment of INS-1(832/13) β-cells with GIP resulted in concentration-dependent activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (PKB)/Foxo1 signaling module. In parallel studies, GIP decreased bax promoter activity. Serial deletion analysis of the bax promoter demonstrated that the region -682 to -320, containing FHRE-II (5AAAACAAACA), was responsible for GIP-mediated effects. Foxo1 bound to FHRE-II in gel mobility shift assays, and Foxo1-FHRE-II interactions conferred GIP responsiveness to the bax promoter. INS-1 cells incubated under proapoptotic and glucolipotoxic conditions demonstrated increased nuclear localization of Foxo1 and bax promoter activity and decreased cytoplasmic phospho-PKB/Foxo1. GIP partially restored expression PKB/Foxo1 and bax promoter activity. Similar protective effects were found with dispersed islet cells from C57BL/6 mice, but not with those from GIP receptor knock-out (GIPR-/-) mice. GIP treatment reduced glucolipotoxicity-induced cell death in C57 BL/6 and Bax-/- islets, but not GIPR-/- mouse islets. Chronic treatment of Vancouver diabetic fatty Zucker rats with GIP resulted in down-regulation of Bax and up-regulation of Bcl-2 in pancreatic β-cells. The results show that PI3K/PKB/Foxo1 signaling mediates GIP suppression of bax gene expression and that this module is a key pathway by which GIP regulates β-cell apoptosis in vivo. The hormone glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) potently stimulates insulin secretion and promotes β-cell proliferation and cell survival. In the present study we identified Forkhead (Foxo1)-mediated suppression of the bax gene as a critical component of the effects of GIP on cell survival. Treatment of INS-1(832/13) β-cells with GIP resulted in concentration-dependent activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (PKB)/Foxo1 signaling module. In parallel studies, GIP decreased bax promoter activity. Serial deletion analysis of the bax promoter demonstrated that the region -682 to -320, containing FHRE-II (5AAAACAAACA), was responsible for GIP-mediated effects. Foxo1 bound to FHRE-II in gel mobility shift assays, and Foxo1-FHRE-II interactions conferred GIP responsiveness to the bax promoter. INS-1 cells incubated under proapoptotic and glucolipotoxic conditions demonstrated increased nuclear localization of Foxo1 and bax promoter activity and decreased cytoplasmic phospho-PKB/Foxo1. GIP partially restored expression PKB/Foxo1 and bax promoter activity. Similar protective effects were found with dispersed islet cells from C57BL/6 mice, but not with those from GIP receptor knock-out (GIPR-/-) mice. GIP treatment reduced glucolipotoxicity-induced cell death in C57 BL/6 and Bax-/- islets, but not GIPR-/- mouse islets. Chronic treatment of Vancouver diabetic fatty Zucker rats with GIP resulted in down-regulation of Bax and up-regulation of Bcl-2 in pancreatic β-cells. The results show that PI3K/PKB/Foxo1 signaling mediates GIP suppression of bax gene expression and that this module is a key pathway by which GIP regulates β-cell apoptosis in vivo. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) 1The abbreviations used are: PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; ANOVA, analysis of variance; Bax-/-, Bax knock-out; BSA, bovine serum albumin; FFA, free fatty acid; FHRE, Forkhead response element; Foxo1, Forkhead; GIP, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide; GIPR-/-, GIP receptor knock-out; PKB, protein kinase B; RFI, relative fluorescence intensity; TUNEL, terminal deoxynucleotidyl-transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling; VDF, Vancouver diabetic fatty. signaling pathway has emerged as a central route for regulating multiple cellular processes, including survival and proliferation of many cell types (1Brunet A. Datta S.R. Greenberg M.E. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2001; 11: 297-305Crossref PubMed Scopus (1016) Google Scholar). The serine/threonine kinase protein kinase B (PKB; Akt) plays a major role in PI3K-mediated survival effects (2Franke T.F. Kaplan D.R. Cantley L.C. Cell. 1997; 88: 435-437Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1528) Google Scholar). Activated PKB can directly phosphorylate and, thereby, inactivate several components of the apoptotic machinery, including caspase 9 (3Cardone M.H. Roy N. Stennicke H.R. Salvesen G.S. Franke T.F. Stanbridge E. Frisch S. Reed J.C. Science. 1998; 282: 1318-1321Crossref PubMed Scopus (2735) Google Scholar), Bad (4Datta S.R. Dudek H. Tao X. Masters S. Fu H. Gotoh Y. Greenberg M.E. Cell. 1997; 91: 231-241Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (4957) Google Scholar), glycogen synthase kinase-3β (5Pap M. Cooper G.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 19929-19932Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (955) Google Scholar), and members of the Forkhead/winged helix (Forkhead; Foxo) family (6Brunet A. Bonni A. Zigmond M.J. Lin M.Z. Juo P. Hu L.S. Anderson M.J. Arden K.C. Blenis J. Greenberg M.E. Cell. 1999; 96: 857-868Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (5454) Google Scholar). Recent studies have revealed that Foxo (FKHR) transcription factors (7Kaestner K.H. Knöchel W. Martinez D.E. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 142-146PubMed Google Scholar) are important mediators of insulin and growth factor actions on gene expression downstream from PI3K and PKB (8Arden K.C. Biggs II, W.H. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2002; 403: 292-298Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar). Members of the Foxo subfamily share several structural features; in addition to the highly conserved central DNA binding Foxo domain (Fox box), Foxo members contain a C-terminal transactivation domain and three consensus phosphorylation sites for PKB located at Thr24, Ser256, and Ser316 (9Rena G. Woods Y.L. Prescott A.R. Peggie M. Unterman T.G. Williams M.R. Cohen P. EMBO J. 2002; 21: 2263-2271Crossref PubMed Scopus (201) Google Scholar). Foxo transcription factors regulate the expression of a wide variety of genes involved in the control of cell survival and apoptosis (6Brunet A. Bonni A. Zigmond M.J. Lin M.Z. Juo P. Hu L.S. Anderson M.J. Arden K.C. Blenis J. Greenberg M.E. Cell. 1999; 96: 857-868Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (5454) Google Scholar, 8Arden K.C. Biggs II, W.H. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2002; 403: 292-298Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar), cell cycle progression (10Kops G.J. Medema R.H. Glassford J. Essers M.A. Dijkers P.F. Coffer P.J. Lam E.W. Burgering B.M. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2002; 22: 2025-2036Crossref PubMed Scopus (374) Google Scholar), protection against oxidative stress (11Nemoto S. Finkel T. Science. 2002; 295: 2450-2452Crossref PubMed Scopus (741) Google Scholar), and DNA repair (12Tran H. Brunet A. Grenier J.M. Datta S.R. Fornace Jr., A.J. DiStefano P.S. Chiang L.W. Greenberg M.E. Science. 2002; 296: 530-534Crossref PubMed Scopus (711) Google Scholar). Phosphorylation by PKB causes redistribution of Foxo1 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and the resulting decrease in nuclear Foxo1 has been proposed as the possible mechanism for the inhibition of Foxo1-mediated transcription (13Webster K.A. Circ. Res. 2004; 94: 856-859Crossref PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar). Regulation of insulin secretion involves the gut-derived peptide incretin hormones glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and the proglucagon gene products glucagon-like peptide-1(GLP-1)-(7–37) and GLP-1-(7–36)-amide (14Pederson R.A. Walsh J.H. Dockray G.J. Gut Peptides: Biochemistry and Physiology. Raven Press, Ltd., New York1994: 217-259Google Scholar, 15Kieffer T.J. Habener J.F. Endocr. Rev. 1999; 20: 876-913Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Recently, anti-apoptotic functions of these hormones in pancreatic β-cells have been identified (16Farilla L. Hui H. Bertolotto C. Kang E. Bulotta A. Di Mario U. Perfetti R. Endocrinology. 2002; 143: 4397-4408Crossref PubMed Scopus (446) Google Scholar, 17Drucker D.J. Mol. Endocrinol. 2003; 17: 161-171Crossref PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, A. J. Endocrinol. 2002; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar, T. R.A. Endocrinology. 2003; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar) and, β-cell death is a major factor to of the that cell survival is GIP has been to PKB in INS-1 β-cells A. H. R. Mol. Endocrinol. 2001; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar), but the signaling pathway responsible the downstream have been In the present we demonstrated that GIP, the signaling nuclear Foxo1 with the Foxo1 response in INS-1 resulting in down-regulation of the bax gene glucolipotoxicity-induced we have that these are involved in of glucolipotoxicity-induced apoptosis in dispersed C57BL/6 mouse islet cells and Vancouver diabetic fatty Zucker rats in vivo. is the of of bax and the bax gene to the of cells were by C. were in with bovine and cells were were of Bax bax gene promoter was the and deletion were by with and for were the were and cells were at a of cells the was with of the bax of and the of control and Foxo1 and kinase and Foxo1 were by G. A. and T. G. Unterman were for to the the cells were with GIP for the in the to with and in of were the and with to for activity is as the activity of is involved in the phosphorylation of In studies in INS-1 cells were in containing and for with the were on cytoplasmic and nuclear and against and PKB and and Foxo1 and and and effects of PI3K on the phosphorylation of PKB cytoplasmic Foxo1 and nuclear Foxo1 were with GIP in the of the PI3K were to cells the as as GIP effects of PI3K on the phosphorylation of PKB cytoplasmic Foxo1 and nuclear Foxo1 INS-1 cells were with a of PI3K a of PI3K and in containing were for with of results from were was to and were relative to three in was with a bax promoter activity in INS-1 cells a pathway the PI3K/PKB/Foxo1 signaling module. In INS-1 cells were with a bax promoter and in containing BSA, and as The bax promoter are as the relative activity to the activity. of bax promoter activity. were with GIP for the of of GIP on bax promoter activity. INS-1 cells were incubated with of GIP for effects of PI3K on bax promoter activity. INS-1 cells were for with GIP in the of the PI3K were to cells a as as GIP effects of PI3K on bax promoter activity. INS-1 cells were with a bax promoter and PI3K a control INS-1 cells were and GIP was for effects of Foxo1 on bax promoter activity. INS-1 cells were with a bax promoter and Foxo1 kinase a control INS-1 cells were as for of INS-1 cells were with Foxo1 and were for with GIP, and was against The three in was with a and multiple of a in the bax Foxo1 binding of the bax promoter were to region by analysis of of the bax deletion and Foxo1 binding is INS-1 cells were with deletion and and were with GIP for The promoter are as the relative activity to the activity. Foxo1 to FHRE-II of the bax promoter. mobility shift was with nuclear and FHRE-II of consensus was as at to mobility shift of the was to binding GIP responsiveness of and FHRE-II The of and FHRE-II are of FHRE-II were to the for the in INS-1 cells were with and bax promoter FHRE-II and as for A. are of three in was with glucolipotoxicity-induced apoptosis INS-1 decreased bax promoter activity in response to treatment with GIP under glucolipotoxic INS-1 cells were with a bax promoter and and to of and for GIP was to and incubated for are as relative activity to activity. INS-1 cells were as and were against Bax and PKB Foxo1, and and Treatment with GIP under glucolipotoxic conditions resulted in decreased Bax protein expression increased PKB phosphorylation increased cytoplasmic Foxo1 phosphorylation and decreased nuclear Foxo1 were against Foxo1 and are of and three in was with glucolipotoxicity-induced apoptosis in dispersed mouse decreased bax expression in response to treatment with GIP under glucolipotoxic C57 BL/6 mouse islets, GIPR-/- islets, and Bax-/- were to of and for GIP was to and incubated for was from and transcription was to bax expression bax expression are as the control to expression dispersed mouse were as and were against Bax and PKB Foxo1 and Treatment with GIP under glucolipotoxic conditions resulted in decreased Bax protein expression increased PKB phosphorylation increased cytoplasmic Foxo1 phosphorylation and decreased nuclear Foxo1 are of and three in was with C57 FFA, C57 cytoplasmic and nuclear cells were at and and incubated on for were at in a and the was The nuclear was in and the were to studies on the of GIP on PKB and Foxo1 INS-1 cells cells were incubated in the of GIP at the in to of protein from were on a gel and of the was with PKB, Foxo1, and from were by of as a of the phosphorylation were the mobility shift for and FHRE-II were with the kinase and with of The was from a were incubated in a binding for Foxo1 BSA, and of with of the of the binding a to of was to the the assays, against Foxo1 was with nuclear for the addition of a were by on a gel in and at for were and for the at with and GIP receptor (GIPR-/-) Y. H. H. N. Y. A. S. M. A. H. T. T. J. Y. U. S. A. 1999; 96: PubMed Scopus Google Scholar) Bax knock-out Science. PubMed Scopus Google Scholar) were by of were by and dispersed to cells as by J. S.R. Mol. Endocrinol. 2001; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar). were in with bovine and of and cells dispersed mouse were incubated with a free fatty to containing GIP was to and incubated for of apoptotic cells was with the apoptosis Ltd., on the of by apoptotic analysis was a of the from the apoptotic cells to the of which are to the of were from a and to with control cells were with of serum the cells were for with GIP were in in for at and with and a were with and with The cells were a and were the GIP of GIP was to Zucker rats and in the to of the the rats were by of were at the of the and were and in for were in with the by the of on and the on from and control rats were to a for Bax and the were incubated with Bax and Bcl-2 and with and were with and a was in to DNA in apoptotic cells the apoptosis to the of was by analysis the of were a of were with those of and as relative fluorescence are as with the of in the to were the analysis and was with multiple the as in the to GIP a PKB/Foxo1 in INS-1 of INS-1 cells with GIP increased phosphorylation of PKB at but on PKB phosphorylation of PKB was by the of was by and was for GIP was concentration-dependent with of GIP treatment increased phosphorylation of Foxo1 at a with of phosphorylation of Foxo1 was by a in Foxo1 nuclear were from INS-1 cells and to with Foxo1 of GIP treatment the expression of nuclear Foxo1 was nuclear decrease was for and demonstrated a GIP with of The for nuclear of Foxo1 was that for phosphorylation of PKB and cytoplasmic Foxo1, that signaling by GIP are involved in the PI3K a of the GIP of PKB/Foxo1 phosphorylation of and by PI3K is for PKB activation D.R. M. P. N. Cohen P. EMBO J. Scopus Google Scholar), the PI3K and the PKB/Foxo1 signaling module was the of PI3K, and of PI3K decreased of PKB to GIP increased of Foxo1 in the and decreased of Foxo1 in the nucleus of PI3K in the PKB/Foxo1 signaling analysis was PI3K and of INS-1 cells decreased partially decreased in the cytoplasm, and increased nuclear in in the and in nuclear Foxo1 were reduced in the resulted in increased PKB phosphorylation with GIP of PKB cytoplasmic and nuclear Foxo1 was response to GIP treatment and In GIP was of a on PKB/Foxo1 in cells with PI3K to GIP, to in the results a role for PI3K in activation of the PKB/Foxo1 signaling GIP of the bax and the PI3K/PKB/Foxo1 bax Foxo1 binding to DNA transcription under conditions of growth factor that can to apoptosis (6Brunet A. Bonni A. Zigmond M.J. Lin M.Z. Juo P. Hu L.S. Anderson M.J. Arden K.C. Blenis J. Greenberg M.E. Cell. 1999; 96: 857-868Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (5454) Google Scholar). to critical death genes involved in apoptosis as in the PI3K/PKB/Foxo1 signaling of the possible Foxo1 protein is a of cell is the bax of the bax gene is we the bax promoter the to of the bax gene promoter binding sites for Foxo1, in addition to nuclear factor and consensus the possible of Foxo1 in GIP of the bax promoter activity were Treatment of INS-1 cells with GIP for resulted in a decrease in bax promoter activity with control studies revealed of for GIP treatment of PI3K signaling with increased bax promoter activity and to GIP treatment Similar to the results with Foxo1, of resulted in of the effects of GIP on bax promoter of resulted in decreased bax promoter activity and with GIP treatment of of Foxo1, resulted in in bax promoter and GIP treatment decreased bax promoter activity to control of a kinase of Foxo1 Ser256, and increased bax promoter activity as with the and GIP was of activity the localization of Foxo1 was Foxo1 was found to from the nucleus to the in response to GIP the Foxo1 was in the nucleus results that the PI3K/PKB/Foxo1 module is a key component in the of bax promoter activity in the β-cell and that GIP activation of this pathway is involved in down-regulation of the bax gene the of Foxo1 from the of a Foxo1 in the bax involved in GIP responsiveness of the bax promoter was identified the and and and and and FHRE-II and to the consensus of growth protein the Foxo1 binding deletion from the of the to were The deletion from -682 to -320, containing GIP responsiveness deletion of a In gel assays, the of a was with the FHRE-II but not with the were to the of this the with the addition of a at to The addition of the nuclear and the FHRE-II and to the of a binding of Foxo1 to the of the FHRE-II in transactivation of the bax were the and the GIP responsiveness of was of three FHRE-II decreased resulting in decreased GIP responsiveness of these as with results that Foxo1 binding to FHRE-II is for transactivation of the bax of bax to of apoptosis resulting from is important of and treatment of β-cells with a of and free fatty has been to the diabetic M. W. R. 2002; PubMed Google Scholar). of the bax gene to the anti-apoptotic actions of GIP, INS-1 cells were incubated in a of and and and the of GIP was The addition of GIP on of apoptosis and in the of this of cells under glucolipotoxic conditions increased apoptosis in the of GIP the of apoptosis was reduced by bax promoter activity and protein expression were increased under glucolipotoxic with GIP treatment partially control and PKB and phosphorylation of Foxo1 in the cytoplasm, which decreased under glucolipotoxic were partially restored by GIP treatment and The expression of Foxo1 in the which increased under glucolipotoxic was partially restored we the of GIP on dispersed C57 BL/6 mouse under glucolipotoxic were GIP to those with INS-1 β-cells. Treatment with GIP reduced glucolipotoxicity-induced apoptotic cell death in dispersed C57 BL/6 mouse but not in those from GIPR-/- and in the of this GIPR-/- mouse to show to the with with C57BL/6 which from the of the anti-apoptotic actions of GIP In dispersed Bax-/- mouse to show increased to and GIP treatment reduced glucolipotoxicity-induced apoptotic cell death and bax and protein expression were increased in dispersed C57 BL/6 mouse to glucolipotoxic and GIP treatment partially restored those with and the of PKB and Foxo1 in the decreased under glucolipotoxic conditions and were partially restored by GIP nuclear Foxo1 was increased under glucolipotoxic conditions and partially restored by GIP the dispersed GIPR-/- mouse revealed to but responsiveness to GIP treatment Bax-/- mouse demonstrated to as with C57 BL/6 mouse islets, and GIP treatment restored protein expression to control results that GIP against glucolipotoxicity-induced apoptotic cell death partially down-regulation of bax gene transcription of Foxo1 from the of apoptosis on INS-1 cells and dispersed islet cells from GIPR-/-, and was the of were from a INS-1 were to those with control INS-1 islet cell were to those with control C57BL/6 islets. was with islet islet islet in a of GIP in of in treatment with GIP on β-cell apoptosis was with of peptide in Zucker of of pancreatic islet Bax protein expression was as under were with those of control and as from diabetic rats revealed increased Bax with of GIP treatment decreased Bax in from and of and In expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 were decreased in rats with of and GIP treatment increased to with from and with those from the revealed that the in Bcl-2 was to β-cells. in results a role for GIP in the of β-cell apoptosis the down-regulation of Bax and the up-regulation of In for the of DNA and by from rats of apoptosis of In from rats of in with GIP, islet cell apoptosis was reduced of has been proposed that GIP promotes cell survival at in by PI3K and downstream PKB G. R.A. 2004; Google Scholar). of PKB is to phosphorylate and, thereby, proapoptotic components of the cell death present the cytoplasm, including and caspase the nuclear of the pathway and role in cell survival have as been In the has been demonstrated that activation of the pathway by GIP results in phosphorylation of Foxo1, a of the Forkhead transcription factor to of Foxo1 in the from including the bax study the we the bax promoter and, the cell a promoter FHRE, FHRE-II was identified that is responsible for GIP-mediated effects. Foxo1 bound to FHRE-II of the bax and deletion of the FHRE-II region resulted in decreased activity as as GIP responsiveness in the FHRE-II region directly activity and GIP responsiveness of the promoter the of interactions for transactivation activity of the bax promoter was increased cells were with of Foxo1, a kinase of Foxo1, Recently, has that Foxo critical in cell and cell cycle progression (6Brunet A. Bonni A. Zigmond M.J. Lin M.Z. Juo P. Hu L.S. 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