Impact of hydrogenated fat on high density lipoprotein subfractions and metabolismRelative to saturated fatty acids, trans-fatty acids/hydrogenated fat-enriched diets have been reported to increase low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels and either decrease or have no effect on high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. To better understand the effect of trans-fatty acids/hydrogenated fat on HDL cholesterol levels and metabolism, 36 subjects (female, n = 18; male, n = 18) were provided with each of three diets containing, as the major sources of fat, vegetable oil-based semiliquid margarine, traditional stick margarine, or butter for 35-day periods. LDL cholesterol levels were 155 ± 27, 168 ± 30, and 177 ± 32 mg/dl after subjects followed the semiliquid margarine, stick margarine, and butter-enriched diets, respectively. HDL cholesterol levels were 43 ± 10, 42 ± 9, and 45 ± 10 mg/dl, respectively. Dietary response in apolipoprotein (apo) A-I levels was similar to that in HDL cholesterol levels. HDL2 cholesterol levels were 12 ± 7, 11 ± 6, and 14 ± 7 mg/dl, respectively. There was virtually no effect of dietary fat on HDL3 cholesterol levels. The dietary perturbations had a larger effect on particles containing apoA-I only (Lp A-I) than apoA-I and A-II (Lp A-I/A-II). Cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) activity was 13.28 ± 5.76, 15.74 ± 5.41, and 14.35 ± 4.77 mmol × h−1 × ml−1, respectively. Differences in CETP, phospholipid transfer protein activity, or the fractional esterification rate of cholesterol in HDL did not account for the differences observed in HDL cholesterol levels. These data suggest that the saturated fatty acid component, rather than the trans- or polyunsaturated fatty acid component, of the diets was the putative factor in modulating HDL cholesterol response. —Lichtenstein, A. H., M. Jauhiainen, S. McGladdery, L. M. Ausman, S. M. Jalbert, M. Vilella-Bach, C. Ehnholm, J. Frohlich, and E. J. Schaefer. Impact of hydrogenated fat on high density lipoprotein subfractions and metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 2001. 42: 597–604. Relative to saturated fatty acids, trans-fatty acids/hydrogenated fat-enriched diets have been reported to increase low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels and either decrease or have no effect on high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. To better understand the effect of trans-fatty acids/hydrogenated fat on HDL cholesterol levels and metabolism, 36 subjects (female, n = 18; male, n = 18) were provided with each of three diets containing, as the major sources of fat, vegetable oil-based semiliquid margarine, traditional stick margarine, or butter for 35-day periods. LDL cholesterol levels were 155 ± 27, 168 ± 30, and 177 ± 32 mg/dl after subjects followed the semiliquid margarine, stick margarine, and butter-enriched diets, respectively. HDL cholesterol levels were 43 ± 10, 42 ± 9, and 45 ± 10 mg/dl, respectively. Dietary response in apolipoprotein (apo) A-I levels was similar to that in HDL cholesterol levels. HDL2 cholesterol levels were 12 ± 7, 11 ± 6, and 14 ± 7 mg/dl, respectively. There was virtually no effect of dietary fat on HDL3 cholesterol levels. The dietary perturbations had a larger effect on particles containing apoA-I only (Lp A-I) than apoA-I and A-II (Lp A-I/A-II). Cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) activity was 13.28 ± 5.76, 15.74 ± 5.41, and 14.35 ± 4.77 mmol × h−1 × ml−1, respectively. Differences in CETP, phospholipid transfer protein activity, or the fractional esterification rate of cholesterol in HDL did not account for the differences observed in HDL cholesterol levels. These data suggest that the saturated fatty acid component, rather than the trans- or polyunsaturated fatty acid component, of the diets was the putative factor in modulating HDL cholesterol response. —Lichtenstein, A. H., M. Jauhiainen, S. McGladdery, L. M. Ausman, S. M. Jalbert, M. Vilella-Bach, C. Ehnholm, J. Frohlich, and E. J. Schaefer. Impact of hydrogenated fat on high density lipoprotein subfractions and metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 2001. 42: 597–604. Trans-fatty acids are geometric isomers of unsaturated fatty acids that contain at least one double bond in the trans configuration. The presence of a trans double bond is in contrast to the presence of a more commonly occurring cis form. Trans-fatty acids are found naturally at low levels in meat and dairy products as a result of bacterial fermentation in ruminant animals. Trans-fatty acids are rarely found naturally in plants. During the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils, frequently done to increase stability and decrease viscosity for subsequent use in food products (i.e., commercially baked and fried foods, traditional stick margarine), some of the cis double bonds are converted to trans double bonds. Other changes that occur during the hydrogenation process include hydration of double bonds and the migration of some double bonds along the acyl chain, forming multiple positional isomers (1Zock P. Mensink R.P. Trans-fatty acids and serum lipoproteins in humans.Cur. Op. in Lipidology. 1996; 7: 34-37Google Scholar). Dietary trans-fatty acids/hydrogenated fat have consistently been reported to raise low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels (2Mensink R.P. Katan M.B. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high density and low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects.N. Engl. J. Med. 1990; 323: 439-445Google Scholar, 3Judd J.T. Clevidence B.A. Muesing R.A. Wittes J. Sunkin M.E. Podczasy J.J. Dietary trans-fatty acids: effects on plasma lipids and lipoproteins of healthy men and women.Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 59: 861-868Google Scholar, 4Lichtenstein A.H. Ausman L.A. Nelson S. Schaefer E.J. Comparison of different forms of hydrogenated fats on serum lipid levels in moderately hypercholesterolemic female and male subjects.N. Eng. J. Med. 1999; 340: 1933-1940Google Scholar). This effect appears to be somewhat proportional to intake (4Lichtenstein A.H. Ausman L.A. Nelson S. Schaefer E.J. Comparison of different forms of hydrogenated fats on serum lipid levels in moderately hypercholesterolemic female and male subjects.N. Eng. J. Med. 1999; 340: 1933-1940Google Scholar) and is not related to increased rates of endogenous cholesterol synthesis (5Cuchel M. Schwab U.S. Jones P.J.H. Vogel S. Lammi-Keefe C. Li Z. Ordovas J. McNamara J. Schaefer E.J. Lichtenstein A.H. Impact of hydrogenated fat consumption on endogenous cholesterol synthesis and susceptibility of low density lipoprotein to oxidation in moderately hypercholesterolemic individuals.Metabolism. 1996; 45: 241-247Google Scholar, 6Matthan N.R. Ausman L.M. Lichtenstein A.H. Jones P.J.H. Hydrogenated fat consumption affects cholesterol synthesis in moderately hypercholesterolemic women.J. Lipid Res. 2000; 41: 834-839Google Scholar). In contrast, the reports of the effects of dietary trans-fatty acids on high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels have been less consistent. In the early 1990s it was reported that a diet enriched in elaidic acid (18:1t), relative to oleic acid (18:1c), not only resulted in higher LDL cholesterol levels but also lowered HDL cholesterol levels (1Zock P. Mensink R.P. Trans-fatty acids and serum lipoproteins in humans.Cur. Op. in Lipidology. 1996; 7: 34-37Google Scholar). Subsequent findings with regard to the effect of trans-fatty acids on HDL cholesterol levels have been inconsistent, with some workers reporting a decrease in levels (2Mensink R.P. Katan M.B. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high density and low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects.N. Engl. J. Med. 1990; 323: 439-445Google Scholar, 3Judd J.T. Clevidence B.A. Muesing R.A. Wittes J. Sunkin M.E. Podczasy J.J. Dietary trans-fatty acids: effects on plasma lipids and lipoproteins of healthy men and women.Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 59: 861-868Google Scholar, 4Lichtenstein A.H. Ausman L.A. Nelson S. Schaefer E.J. Comparison of different forms of hydrogenated fats on serum lipid levels in moderately hypercholesterolemic female and male subjects.N. Eng. J. Med. 1999; 340: 1933-1940Google Scholar, 7Sundram K. Ismail A. Hayes K.C. Jeyamalar R. Pathmanathan R. Trans (Elaidic) fatty acids adversely affect the lipoprotein profile relative to specific saturated fatty acids in humans.J. Nutr. Scholar, P. Effect on plasma lipids and lipoproteins of hydrogenated with vegetable fat in J. Nutr. Scholar) and reporting no effect M. of cholesterol and fat of diets on serum lipids and specific fatty acids in and hypercholesterolemic humans.J. Nutr. Scholar, R. K. S. Effect of and polyunsaturated fatty acid enriched trans- fatty acid margarine, and trans-fatty acid on serum lipids and lipoproteins in healthy Lipid Res. Scholar, P. M. R. P. E. M. lipoprotein lipid and of elaidic acid for oleic acid in the Lipid Res. Scholar, M. R. M. of for J. Clin. Nutr. Scholar, R. K. S. R. Effect of margarine, and on the serum lipids and lipoproteins of Nutr. Scholar, R. K. Effect on serum lipids of and in the diet of J. Clin. Nutr. 1996; Scholar, A.H. Ausman L. Ordovas J. Schaefer E.J. the effect of in Scholar, J.T. Clevidence B.A. Muesing R.A. Lichtenstein A.H. M. Schaefer E.J. of butter on lipid related to in J. Clin. Nutr. Scholar, Schwab U.S. fatty acid diet and in healthy 1999; Scholar). the effects of HDL cholesterol levels on the cholesterol and A. Katan M.B. P. Trans-fatty acids and Engl. J. Med. 1999; 340: Scholar) have that the effects of trans-fatty acids be than of saturated fatty the of and have the effect of commercially forms of vegetable on HDL cholesterol levels and HDL subfractions in moderately hypercholesterolemic one semiliquid margarine, and one traditional stick margarine, relative to the fat, have also changes in with the of cholesterol fractional esterification rate of HDL cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) activity, and phospholipid transfer protein female and male with LDL cholesterol levels than mg/dl were the for the subjects the and no to affect lipid and a were and were not for were only were This was the of and and was of and HDL cholesterol levels (4Lichtenstein A.H. Ausman L.A. Nelson S. Schaefer E.J. Comparison of different forms of hydrogenated fats on serum lipid levels in moderately hypercholesterolemic female and male subjects.N. Eng. J. Med. 1999; 340: 1933-1940Google Scholar). The data on the HDL subfractions and The subjects were provided with diets containing of or for of to a the of three of the the with the in trans- and polyunsaturated fatty acid levels and are reported the subjects and were as to the diet of have been (4Lichtenstein A.H. Ausman L.A. Nelson S. Schaefer E.J. Comparison of different forms of hydrogenated fats on serum lipid levels in moderately hypercholesterolemic female and male subjects.N. Eng. J. Med. 1999; 340: 1933-1940Google Scholar). The intake was ± in and ± in were for lipid and apolipoprotein (apo) three after of each diet The of at the three is reported and was for diets were to contain of as as and as of the fat of was provided as semiliquid in traditional in or The fat, and cholesterol of diet each for diet was The fatty acid profile of the diets was were in containing was at at of the was to the of HDL2 and This for the of containing lipoproteins low density lipoprotein density lipoprotein and and in a J. J.J. for of high density lipoprotein Scholar, for of HDL and Scholar). the of HDL cholesterol was after the of and and the of HDL3 cholesterol was after the of HDL2 the of HDL2 cholesterol was as the HDL cholesterol and HDL3 was plasma at to Lipid The and of lipoproteins in Clin. Scholar). the and HDL3 were for cholesterol with a Schaefer E.J. lipid for plasma and lipoprotein Scholar). Lipid were the Lipid of the for apoA-I levels were a with and McNamara Lammi-Keefe Schaefer E.J. for plasma apolipoprotein A-I with a the 1996; 42: Scholar). of and in particles were commercially with the of A-I lipoprotein particles on 1990; Scholar). of apoA-I in particles with apoA-I and A-II were The of for were and respectively. each the of was for apoA-I and for Cholesterol ester transfer The activity of was in plasma after of endogenous and LDL and as of ester activity in serum or Scholar). transfer activity in plasma was the transfer of in to HDL3 to the of and J. J. of and plasma high density of a plasma factor a transfer with M. J. R. S. A. C. plasma phospholipid transfer protein high density lipoprotein Scholar, P. M. J. J. C. plasma phospholipid transfer protein HDL Lipid Res. Scholar). Cholesterol esterification rate esterification rate was M. J. of Ordovas Scholar, M. J. the of to the high of Res. Scholar). lipoproteins were the serum with acid and of cholesterol was to a and with the to for and after the in the and cholesterol was The was as the of found in ester relative to the in the to the and and were to the effects of diets and of the of the were of the data were of with effect of diet and as was for each followed a of for the each of the three The of the subjects at the of are in the of a of moderately hypercholesterolemic subjects for dietary be the to lipid levels. The female subjects for the to have higher HDL cholesterol and cholesterol than the male of the subjects at the of are ± = = = ± ± ± ± ± ± and HDL cholesterol to To to ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± low density low density high density are ± To and HDL cholesterol to To to in a low density low density high density cholesterol The of the diets, as is in the of hydrogenation increased semiliquid to stick margarine, the relative of trans-fatty acids the of polyunsaturated fatty acids Relative to the diets, the butter-enriched diet had double the of saturated fatty acids and a of polyunsaturated fatty the cholesterol of the butter-enriched of fats of was that of the of diets as are as of are on of to saturated fatty fatty polyunsaturated fatty are as of are on of To to in a saturated fatty fatty polyunsaturated fatty The and LDL cholesterol levels were observed after the subjects the butter-enriched after the semiliquid and after the stick diet In contrast, HDL cholesterol levels followed a different HDL cholesterol levels were after the subjects the stick than after the butter-enriched consumption of semiliquid resulted in HDL cholesterol levels similar to after consumption of the stick The the stick and butter diets was in the female subjects and virtually in the male The intake of the stick and butter resulted in the least cholesterol intake of the semiliquid resulted in the cholesterol only were HDL cholesterol levels but levels were after subjects the stick and apolipoprotein levels after of diets containing different forms of hydrogenated are ± The female and male subjects each diet in for the of the are as for and HDL cholesterol to To for to data to ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± differences the low density lipoprotein low density lipoprotein high density lipoprotein are ± The female and male subjects each diet in for the of the are as To for and HDL cholesterol to To for to data to in a HDL apoA-I and levels and levels after of diets containing different forms of hydrogenated are ± The female and male subjects each diet in for the of the are as for HDL2 and HDL3 cholesterol to ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± for HDL2 and HDL3 cholesterol to ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± for HDL2 and HDL3 cholesterol to ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± in ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± in ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± differences the high density high density lipoprotein are ± The female and male subjects each diet in for the of the are as To for HDL2 and HDL3 cholesterol to in a differences the low density lipoprotein low density lipoprotein high density lipoprotein differences the high density high density lipoprotein The differences in HDL cholesterol levels were to changes in HDL2 cholesterol rather than HDL3 cholesterol with HDL HDL2 cholesterol levels were after the subjects the butter-enriched after subjects the stick and similar to the stick after semiliquid The in HDL2 cholesterol levels the stick and butter was in the as a in the female and not in the male with HDL cholesterol apoA-I levels were after the subjects the stick diet and after the butter-enriched diet stick with the semiliquid diet in apoA-I levels the a was in male differences were in only stick also the HDL on the of apolipoprotein the HDL particles with apoA-I only with apoA-I and A-II in were after the subjects the diet enriched in stick with the diet enriched in with levels after the subjects the semiliquid Differences observed for the were in the data for the female and male only the Differences in apoA-I in to diet were also the was not as as that for apoA-I in either for the as a or the data for and men were The differences only for in levels were low and did not to be diet in to the changes in HDL cholesterol and apoA-I the of HDL were of dietary These data suggest that differences in the levels of HDL cholesterol apoA-I it is that the of the particles was to a In to the the diets HDL cholesterol the activity of with HDL metabolism. the three diet was observed for activity was somewhat in male subjects after the stick diet and after the butter-enriched and was with HDL2 levels = = activity was after subjects the stick diet and after the semiliquid after the subjects the butter-enriched diet were after consumption of the semiliquid activity, and activity after of diets containing different forms of hydrogenated are ± The female and male subjects each diet in for ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± × h−1 × ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± × h−1 × ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± differences the esterification rate of phospholipid transfer protein CETP, cholesterol ester transfer protein are ± The female and male subjects each diet in for in a differences the esterification rate of phospholipid transfer protein CETP, cholesterol ester transfer protein The intake of hydrogenated fat trans-fatty acids and saturated fatty acids been with changes in LDL and HDL cholesterol levels with increased of of the of the Cholesterol on and of Cholesterol in Scholar). In the have to the changes in HDL cholesterol levels the for butter of commonly forms of vegetable oil-based one and one in moderately hypercholesterolemic and changes to that HDL in The of the in HDL cholesterol levels after the subjects the and hydrogenated diets of hydrogenation as trans- and polyunsaturated fatty acid was not as was some (2Mensink R.P. Katan M.B. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high density and low density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects.N. Engl. J. Med. 1990; 323: 439-445Google Scholar, 3Judd J.T. Clevidence B.A. Muesing R.A. Wittes J. Sunkin M.E. Podczasy J.J. Dietary trans-fatty acids: effects on plasma lipids and lipoproteins of healthy men and women.Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 59: 861-868Google Scholar, 4Lichtenstein A.H. Ausman L.A. Nelson S. Schaefer E.J. Comparison of different forms of hydrogenated fats on serum lipid levels in moderately hypercholesterolemic female and male subjects.N. Eng. J. 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The findings are with the to saturated and hydrogenated The the of the for the provided to the and for also the of the not have been This was the of the for and the U.S. of or in are of the and not the of the U.S. of